Just Accepted Manuscripts
Research Articles

Understanding how milk-producing countries estimate costs of dairy production: A comparative review

Just Accepted
  • Agung Triatmojo,
  • Thomas Zanon,
  • Massimiliano Calvia,
  • Christian Fischer,
  • Matthias Gauly
Agung Triatmojo
Free University of Bolzano
Thomas Zanon
Free University of Bolzano
Massimiliano Calvia
Free University of Bolzano
Christian Fischer
Free University of Bolzano
Matthias Gauly
Free University of Bolzano
DOI: https://doi.org/10.36253/rea-16629

Published 2026-03-24

Keywords

  • Dairy farming,
  • milk price,
  • milk production,
  • production costs,
  • typical farm approach

How to Cite

Triatmojo, A., Zanon, T., Calvia, M., Fischer, C., & Gauly, M. (2026). Understanding how milk-producing countries estimate costs of dairy production: A comparative review. Italian Review of Agricultural Economics. https://doi.org/10.36253/rea-16629

Copyright (c) 2026 Agung Triatmojo, Thomas Zanon, Massimiliano Calvia, Christian Fischer, Matthias Gauly

Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Abstract

Benchmarking milk cost of production (CoP) helps identify economic performance disparities, guide business decisions, and shape policy regulations across the dairy industry. However, the reliability of CoP data is heavily influenced by the methodologies employed. Comparisons remain challenging due to variations in farm business characteristics, accounting regulations, market dynamics, and political considerations. Therefore, this review aims to explore the diverse CoP methodologies to compare the cost frameworks and revenues of dairy enterprises in countries that are significant producers in the global market. The analysis includes countries from the EU27 (Germany, France, the Netherlands, Poland, Italy, and Ireland), along with the United States, Canada, Brazil, Australia, and New Zealand, in comparison with global dairy network benchmarks. The findings clearly demonstrate that methods for calculating milk CoP vary considerably among countries. In addition, discrepancies in CoP methods may distort the disparities in the economic performance of dairy operations. This study concludes that variations in cost frameworks across countries hinder effective cross-country comparisons of milk CoP, and that current harmonised frameworks provide decent estimations when compared to national calculations. To address this issue, it is recommended that global dairy networks develop harmonised methodologies that consider existing official national methods and local contexts, thereby enhancing policy relevance and improving comparison accuracy.

Just Accepted

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

References

  1. AAEA (2000). Commodity Costs and Returns Estimation Handbook. United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. http://ageconsearch.umn.edu.
  2. ABARES (2024). Farm surveys definitions and methods, Departement of Agriculture, Fisheries, and Forestry, Australian Government, Canberra. https://www.agriculture.gov.au/abares/research-topics/surveys/farm-definitions-methods#references.
  3. Allain E., Laurin C. (2018). Explaining implementation difficulties associated with activity-based costing through system uses. Journal of Applied Accounting Research, 19(1): 181-198. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/JAAR-11-2014-0120.
  4. Amat C., Michalski T.K., Stoltz G. (2014). Forecasting exchange rates better than the random walk thanks to machine learning techniques. SSRN Electronic Journal. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2448655.
  5. Antonioli F., Severini S., Vigani M. (2023). Visa for competitiveness: Foreign workforce and Italian dairy farms’ performance. European Review of Agricultural Economics, 50(1): 115-150. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/erae/jbab045.
  6. Arendonk J.A.M., van Liinamo A.-E. (2003). Dairy cattle production in Europe. Theriogenology, 59(2): 563-569. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0093-691X(02)01240-2.
  7. Atzori A.S., Valsecchi C., Manca E., Masoero F., Cannas A., Gallo A. (2021). Assessment of feed and economic efficiency of dairy farms based on multivariate aggregation of partial indicators measured on field. Journal of Dairy Science, 104(12): 12679-12692. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2020-19764.
  8. Beber C.L., Langer G., Meyer J. (2021). Strategic actions for a sustainable internationalization of agri-food supply chains: The case of the dairy industries from Brazil and Germany. Sustainability, 13(19), 10873. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su131910873.
  9. Belloin J.C. (1998). Milk and dairy products: Production and processing costs, Food and Agriculture Orzanization of the United Nations, Rome. https://www.fao.org/4/x6931e/X6931E00.htm#TOC.
  10. Berg M., Moore G. (1989). The choice of depreciation method under uncertainty. Decision Sciences, 20(4): 643-654. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5915.1989.tb01409.x.
  11. Bernardes T.F., do Rêgo A.C. (2014). Study on the practices of silage production and utilization on Brazilian dairy farms. Journal of Dairy Science, 97(3): 1852-1861. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2013-7181.
  12. Biden S., Ker A.P., Duff S. (2020). Impacts of trade liberalization in Canada’s supply managed dairy industry. Agricultural Economics, 51(4): 535-552. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/agec.12570.
  13. Biesebroeck J.V. (2009). Disaggregate productivity comparisons: Sectoral convergence in OECD countries. Journal of Productivity Analysis, 32(2): 63-79. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11123-009-0132-z.
  14. Bimbo F., Bonanno A., Liu X., Viscecchia R. (2016). Hedonic analysis of the price of UHT-treated milk in Italy. Journal of Dairy Science, 99(2): 1095-1102. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2015-10018.
  15. Britt J.H., Cushman R.A., Dechow C.D., Dobson H., Humblot P., Hutjens M.F., Jones G.A., Ruegg P.S., Sheldon I.M., Stevenson J.S. (2018). Invited review: Learning from the future—A vision for dairy farms and cows in 2067. Journal of Dairy Science, 101(5): 3722-3741. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2017-14025.
  16. Brunk I. (Wuerth), Hakimi M. (2022). Russia, Ukraine, and the future world order. American Journal of International Law, 116(4): 687-697. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/ajil.2022.69.
  17. Bureau J.C., Butault J.-P. (1992). Productivity gaps, price advantages and competitiveness in E.C. agriculture. European Review of Agricultural Economics, 19(1): 25-48. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/erae/19.1.25.
  18. Canadian Dairy Commission (2024). Cost of production survey, Canadian Dairy Commission, Ottawa. https://cdc-ccl.ca/node/643.
  19. Chamberlain T. (2012). Understanding the economics of dairy farming. Part 2: Identifying the factors that drive profitability. Livestock, 17(6): 25-28. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-3870.2012.00150.x.
  20. Chatellier V. (2021). Review: International trade in animal products and the place of the European Union: Main trends over the last 20 years. Animal, 15, 100289. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.animal.2021.100289.
  21. CLAL.IT (2024). Dairy by country, CLAL Srl, Sermide e Felonica. https://www.clal.it/en/index.php.
  22. Coffey E.L., Horan B., Evans R.D., Berry D.P. (2016). Milk production and fertility performance of Holstein, Friesian, and Jersey purebred cows and their respective crosses in seasonal-calving commercial farms. Journal of Dairy Science, 99(7): 5681-5689. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2015-10530.
  23. CONAB (2020). Norma metodologia do custo de produção 30.302, Companhia Nacional de Abastecimento, Brasília. https://www.conab.gov.br/images/arquivos/normativos/30000_sistema_de_operacoes/30.302_Norma_Metodologia_de_Custo_de_Producao.pdf.
  24. Conigliani C., Tancredi A. (2009). A Bayesian model averaging approach for cost‐effectiveness analyses. Health Economics, 18(7): 807-821. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/hec.1404.
  25. Correa-Luna M., Donaghy D., Kemp P., Shalloo L., Ruelle E., Hennessy D., López-Villalobos N. (2021). Productivity, profitability and nitrogen utilisation efficiency of two pasture-based milk production systems differing in the milking frequency and feeding level. Sustainability, 13(4), 2098. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su13042098.
  26. DairyAustralia (2024). Dairy farm monitor project, Diary Australia, Melbourne. https://www.dairyaustralia.com.au/industry-reports/dairy-farm-monitor-project.
  27. DairyNZ (2024). Farm economics, DairyNZ, Hamilton. https://connect.dairynz.co.nz/content/89ba1084-42c5-4786-882b-cc91b8016d05/.
  28. Dillon P., Hennessy T., Shalloo L., Thorne F., Horan B. (2008). Future outlook for the Irish dairy industry: A study of international competitiveness, influence of international trade reform and requirement for change. International Journal of Dairy Technology, 61(1): 16-29. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-0307.2008.00374.x
  29. Dobson W.D., Wagner J. (2000). The deregulation and rationalization of Australia’s dairy industry-Implications for the U.S. and world dairy industries, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Babcock Institute for International Dairy Research and Development, Madison. DOI: https://doi.org/10.22004/ag.econ.37661.
  30. Edwards J.P. (2020). A comparison of profitability between farms that milk once or twice a day. Animal Production Science, 60(1): 102. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1071/AN18528.
  31. EMB (2021). Milk production costs in eight European countries, EU average costs and organic milk production costs What is the cost of producing milk?, European Milk Board, Brussels. www.milcherzeuger.eu.
  32. European Commission (2021). EU dairy farms report based on 2018 FADN data, European Commision. https://agriculture.ec.europa.eu/document/download/19e9af1c-82af-4e95-8c3a-8df09dafd2f9_en?filename=fadn-dairy-report-2021_en.pdf.
  33. FAO (2016). Agricultural cost of production statistics guidelines for data collection, compilation and dissemination publication prepared in the framework of the Global Strategy to Improve Agricultural and Rural Statistics. Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome.
  34. FAO (2023). Dairy market review: Emerging trends and outlook in 2023, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome. https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/68f7f25d-b3cb-418e-b04d-5708e5bcea1e/content.
  35. FAOSTAT (2025). Producer prices, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/PP.
  36. Freitas A.F., Wilcox C.J., Costa C.N. (1998). Breed group effects on milk production of Brazilian crossbred dairy cows. Journal of Dairy Science, 81(8): 2306-2311. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(98)75811-4.
  37. Freitas E.N.A., Cabrera V.E. (2025). Dairy Victory Platform: A novel benchmarking platform to empower economic decisions on dairy farms. JDS Communications, 6(1): 69-73. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3168/jdsc.2024-0617.
  38. Frengley G.A.G., Johnston W.E. (1992). Financial stress and consumption expectations among farm households: New Zealand’s experience with economic liberalisation. Journal of Agricultural Economics, 43(1): 14-27. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-9552.1992.tb00194.x.
  39. Hagan B.A., Moro-Mendez J., Cue R.I. (2021). Realized genetic selection differentials in Canadian Ayrshire, Jersey, and Brown Swiss dairy cattle populations. Journal of Dairy Science, 104(2): 1951-1966. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2019-17938.
  40. Harris B.L. (2005). Breeding dairy cows for the future in New Zealand. New Zealand Veterinary Journal, 53(6): 384-389. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00480169.2005.36582.
  41. Hegazi M.O. (2024). A novel approach for simulating and optimizing the production costing system. Heliyon, 10(24), e40932. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e40932.
  42. Hemme T., Uddin M.M., Ndambi O.A. (2014). Benchmarking cost of milk production in 46 countries. Journal of Reviews on Global Economics, 3: 254-270. DOI: https://doi.org/10.6000/1929-7092.2014.03.20.
  43. IFCN Dairy Network (2018). IFCN dairy report 2021: The dairy research network, The International Farm Comparison Network, Kiel. https://ifcndairy.org/ifcn-products-services/dairy-report/.
  44. IFCN Dairy Network (2022). IFCN dairy report 2021: The dairy research network, The International Farm Comparison Network, Kiel. https://ifcndairy.org/ifcn-products-services/dairy-report/.
  45. Inna B., Tetiana Y., Anatolii B., Oleksandr K., Liudmyla Y., Svitlana B. (2024). Features of enterprise cost management. In Alareeni B., Elgedawy I. (eds) Opportunities and Risks in AI for Business Development. Studies in Systems, Decision and Control, vol. 545 (pp. 699-709). Springer, Cham. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-65203-5_61.
  46. Jayawardana J.M.D.R., Lopez-Villalobos N., Hickson R.E., McNaughton L.R. (2023). Estimation of genetic parameters and individual and maternal breed, heterosis, and recombination loss effects for production and fertility traits of spring-calved cows milked once daily or twice daily in New Zealand. Journal of Dairy Science, 106(1): 364-380. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2022-22053
  47. Kamal S., Noy I. (2023). Impact of droughts on farms’ financing choices: Empirical evidence from New Zealand. Weather, Climate, and Society, 15(1): 121-132. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1175/WCAS-D-21-0193.1.
  48. Kondaridze M., Liu X., Luckstead J. (2025). Dairy trade reconsidered: Gravity and the distributional effect of non‐tariff barriers and distance. Agricultural Economics, 57(1), e70081. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/agec.70081.
  49. Kondaridze M., Luckstead J. (2023). Determinants of dairy‐product trade: Do subsidies matter? Journal of Agricultural Economics, 74(3): 857-873. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1477-9552.12536.
  50. Krupová Z., Krupa E., Michaličková M., Wolfová M., Kasarda R. (2016). Economic values for health and feed efficiency traits of dual-purpose cattle in marginal areas. Journal of Dairy Science, 99(1): 644-656. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2015-9951.
  51. Langley S.V., Somwaru A., Normile M.A. (2006). Trade liberalization in international dairy markets: Estimated impacts, Economic Research Report Number 16, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. DOI: https://doi.org/10.22004/AG.ECON.7214.
  52. Langrell S., Ciaian P., Paloma S.G., Cunningham D.L., Garnier J.-F., Isermeyer F., Mishra A.K. (2012). Sustainability and production costs in the global farming sector: Comparative analysis and methodologies. European Commission.
  53. Lazzarini B., Lopez-Villalobos N., Lyons N., Hendrikse L., Baudracco J. (2018). Productive, economic and risk assessment of grazing dairy systems with supplemented cows milked once a day. Animal, 12(5): 1077-1083. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1751731117002853.
  54. Lozada-Soto E.A., Tiezzi F., Jiang J., Cole J.B., VanRaden P.M., Maltecca C. (2022). Genomic characterization of autozygosity and recent inbreeding trends in all major breeds of US dairy cattle. Journal of Dairy Science, 105(11): 8956-8971. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2022-22116.
  55. Luo J., Ledgard S. (2021). New Zealand dairy farm systems and key environmental effects. Frontiers of Agricultural Science and Engineering, 8(1): 148. DOI: https://doi.org/10.15302/J-FASE-2020372.
  56. McLachlan B.A., Van Kooten G.C. (2022). Reforming Canada’s dairy supply management scheme and the consequences for international trade. Canadian Journal of Agricultural Economics/Revue Canadienne d’agroeconomie, 70(1): 21-39. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/cjag.12305.
  57. McNown R., Wallace M.S. (1989). National price levels, purchasing power parity, and cointegration: A test of four high inflation economies. Journal of International Money and Finance, 8(4): 533-545. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0261-5606(89)90035-1.
  58. Milić D., Novaković T., Tekić D., Matkovski B., Đokić D., Zekić S. (2023). Economic sustainability of the milk and dairy supply chain: Evidence from Serbia. Sustainability, 15(21), 15234. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su152115234.
  59. Murphy J.P., O’Donovan M., McCarthy K., Delaby L., Sugrue K., Galvin N., Murphy C., Kennedy E. (2023). A three-year comparison of once-a-day and twice-a-day milking in seasonal-calving pasture-based systems. Journal of Dairy Science, 106(12): 8910-8925. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2023-23379.
  60. Mykrantz J.L., Bozic M. (2022). Opportunity cost: An economic concept that may improve the functioning of federal milk marketing orders and the U.S. dairy industry. Journal of Agricultural and Applied Economics, 54(4): 606-620. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/aae.2022.29.
  61. Negrín M.A., Vázquez-Polo F.-J. (2008). Incorporating model uncertainty in cost-effectiveness analysis: A Bayesian model averaging approach. Journal of Health Economics, 27(5): 1250-1259. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhealeco.2008.03.005.
  62. Nguyen T.T.T., Bowman P.J., Haile-Mariam M., Nieuwhof G.J., Hayes B.J., Pryce J.E. (2017). Short communication: Implementation of a breeding value for heat tolerance in Australian dairy cattle. Journal of Dairy Science, 100(9): 7362-7367. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2017-12898.
  63. Ocean N., Howley P. (2023). Which benefits would make farmers happier, and which would they choose? Land Economics, 99(3): 458-476. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3368/le.99.3.112321-0139R.
  64. Ohlan R. (2014). Growth and instability in dairy production and trade: A global analysis. International Journal of Trade and Global Markets, 7(2): 145. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1504/IJTGM.2014.062856.
  65. Oliveira H.R., Lourenco D.A.L., Masuda Y., Misztal I., Tsuruta S., Jamrozik J., Brito L. F., Silva F.F., Cant J.P., Schenkel F.S. (2019). Single-step genome-wide association for longitudinal traits of Canadian Ayrshire, Holstein, and Jersey dairy cattle. Journal of Dairy Science, 102(11): 9995-10011. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2019-16821.
  66. Ozawa T., Lopez-Villalobos N., Blair H.T. (2005). Dairy farming financial structures in Hokkaido, Japan and New Zealand. Animal Science Journal, 76(4): 391-400. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1740-0929.2005.00281.x.
  67. Pant H.M., Fisher B.S. (2007). Alternative measures of output in global economic-environmental models: Purchasing power parity or market exchange rates? —Comment. Energy Economics, 29(3): 375-389. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2006.10.006.
  68. Parzonko A., Parzonko A.J., Bórawski P. (2024). Economic competitiveness of dairy farms from the top milk-producing countries in the EU: Assessment in 2014-2021. Agriculture (Switzerland), 14(1). DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture14010123.
  69. Phillipov M., Loyer J. (2019). In the wake of the supermarket ‘milk wars’: Media, farmers and the power of pastoral sentimentality. Discourse, Context Media, 32, 100346. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcm.2019.100346.
  70. Probo M., Atashi H., Hostens M. (2024). Lactation performances in primiparous Holstein cows following short and normal gestation lengths. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 11. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2024.1289116.
  71. Quesado P., Silva R. (2021). Activity-based costing (ABC) and its implication for open innovation. Journal of Open Innovation: Technology, Market, and Complexity, 7(1): 41. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/joitmc7010041.
  72. Reeson A.F., McAllister R.R.J., Whitten S.M., Gordon I.J., Nicholas M., McDouall S.S. (2008). The agistment market in the northern Australian rangelands: Failings and opportunities. The Rangeland Journal, 30(3): 283. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1071/RJ06042.
  73. Ronzon T., Ciaian P., Paloma S.G., Delince J. (2014). Literature review on cost of production methodologies, Technical Paper Series GO-04-2014. DOI: https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.30101.12008.
  74. Ruzzante S., Labarta R., Bilton A. (2021). Adoption of agricultural technology in the developing world: A meta-analysis of the empirical literature. World Development, 146, 105599. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105599.
  75. Sanjuán A.I., Philippidis G., Ferrer Pérez H., Gracia De Rentería P. (2023). Empirical insights on the dynamics of SPS trade costs: The role of regulatory convergence and experience in EU dairy trade. Food Policy, 119, 102524. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2023.102524.
  76. Sercu P., Uppal R., Hulle C.V. (1995). The exchange rate in the presence of transaction costs: Implications for tests of purchasing power parity. The Journal of Finance, 50(4): 1309. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2329354.
  77. Smith B.J. (1974). Estimating comparative costs of producing milk among the Southern states. Journal of Agricultural and Applied Economics, 6(1): 221-228. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0081305200011754.
  78. Špička J., Dereník P. (2021). How opportunity costs change the view on the viability of farms? Empirical evidence from the EU. Agricultural Economics (Zemědělská Ekonomika), 67(2): 41-50. DOI: https://doi.org/10.17221/412/2020-AGRICECON.
  79. Stanbury W.T. (2002). The politics of milk in Canada, The Fraser Institute, Vancouver. https://www.fraserinstitute.org/sites/default/files/PoliticsofMilkinCanada.pdf.
  80. Stirm J.E.W., St-Pierre N.R. (2003). Identification and characterization of location decision factors for relocating dairy farms. Journal of Dairy Science, 86(11): 3473-3487. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(03)73952-6.
  81. Thomassen M.A., Dolman M.A., van Calker K.J., de Boer I J.M. (2009). Relating life cycle assessment indicators to gross value added for Dutch dairy farms. Ecological Economics, 68(8-9): 2278-2284. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2009.02.011.
  82. Tian R., Yang Z., Shao Q. (2020). Effects of host country resource endowment and labour cost on China’s investment in overseas cultivated land. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 27(36): 45282-45296. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-10373-3.
  83. Upton J., Murphy M., de Boer I.J.M., Koerkamp P.W.G.G., Berentsen P.B.M., Shalloo L. (2015). Investment appraisal of technology innovations on dairy farm electricity consumption. Journal of Dairy Science, 98(2): 898-909. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2014-8383.
  84. USDA (2024). Milk cost of production estimates, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. https://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/milk-cost-of-production-estimates/.
  85. Viira A.-H., Põder A., Värnik R. (2009). The factors affecting the motivation to exit farming - Evidence from Estonia. Food Economics - Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica, Section C, 6(3-4): 156-172. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/16507541.2010.481899.
  86. Weigel K.A., Rekaya R., Zwald N.R., Fikse W.F. (2001). International genetic evaluation of dairy sires using a multiple-trait model with individual animal performance records. Journal of Dairy Science, 84(12): 2789-2795. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(01)74734-0.
  87. Williamson J.M., Stutzman S. (2016). Tax policy and farm capital investment: Section 179 expensing and bonus depreciation. Agricultural Finance Review, 76(2): 246-269. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/AFR-07-2015-0031.
  88. World Bank. (2025). Data Bank World Development Indicators, World Bank Group, Washinton, D.C. https://databank.worldbank.org/metadataglossary/world-development-indicators/series/PA.NUS.PPP.
  89. Zanon T., Fichter G., Mittermair P., Nocker L., Gauly M., Peratoner G. (2023). Quantifying methane emissions under field conditions under 2 different dairy production scenarios: Low-input versus high-input milk production. Journal of Dairy Science, 106(7): 4711-4724. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2022-22804.
  90. Zanon T., König S., Gauly M. (2020). A comparison of animal-related figures in milk and meat production and economic revenues from milk and animal sales of five dairy cattle breeds reared in Alps region. Italian Journal of Animal Science, 19(1): 1318-1328. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1828051X.2020.1839361.
  91. Ziętara W., Pietrzak M., Malak-Rawlikowska A. (2024). Polish dairy farm transformations and competitiveness 20 years after Poland’s accession to the European Union. Animals, 14(13), 2013. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14132013.